The United Nations’ (UN’s) “special procedures” constitute an international system for monitoring human rights. Special procedures draw on the expertise of independent human rights experts who act independently and are mandated to report and advise on human rights, which they examine from the perspective of a specific country (a country mandate) or from the perspective of particular human rights issue (a thematic mandate). Special procedures may be established as individuals called “special rapporteurs” or “independent experts,” or as groups of five members each known as “working groups.”
As of November 2025, there were 59 active special procedures mandates, with 46 focused on thematic issues and 13 on specific countries or territories. According to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), special procedures are unpaid and appointed for three-year mandates that can be renewed once. Although the first woman expert was not appointed until 1994, just over 60 percent of special procedures mandate holders are now women.
UN special procedures have increased their engagement with Canada, particularly through fact-finding missions. Since 2000, 15 different thematic mandate holders and three country mandate holders have undertaken 22 visits to Canada.
Who Are the United Nations Special Procedures?
Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan described the UN’s special procedures as the “crown jewel” of the international human rights system. Others have referred to them as the “public face of the UN human rights system,” a “voice for the voiceless” or an “early warning and protection mechanism.”
The UN’s Human Rights Council (HRC), which is a political entity whose membership is made up of states, establishes the mandates of special procedures through resolutions and appoints the experts. The OHCHR Special Procedures Branch is an administrative and technical support body that provides logistical, information and research support to the special procedures.
Mandate holders act independently of their country of origin and serve in a personal capacity. While they are not UN employees, they are entitled to UN immunities deemed necessary for them to discharge their mandates in an unhindered manner. Although they enact their mandates without any direction from the UN, they must execute their activities within their given mandates and observe the Code of Conduct for Special Procedures Mandate-holders.
As holding a position requires, on average, a time commitment of three months’ unpaid work a year, mandate holders tend to be employed in organizations located in more developed countries, often in academia. To date, eight Canadians have served as either thematic or country mandate holders.
Origins of the System
The system of UN special procedures first emerged in the 1960s and 1970s when rising international concern about systematic human rights violations in South Africa, Chile and other countries compelled the UN Human Rights Commission – forerunner of the HRC – to establish independent, investigative working groups and special rapporteurs with specific country mandates. Similar concern about widespread disappearances in Argentina in the late 1970s inspired the creation of the UN’s first thematic special procedure in 1980, the UN Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, which remains active to this day.
In the late 1980s, the UN Human Rights Commission established thematic mandates on arbitrary executions, torture, religious intolerance and the use of mercenaries. Some observers have argued that special procedures only began to be regarded as a “system” when their use expanded in the 1990s. Since then, there has been a proliferation of new mandates, especially those with a thematic focus.
Primary Functions
The HRC sets out the primary functions of the special procedures, which typically include the following:
- conducting fact-finding country visits;
- acting on allegations of individual and systematic human rights violations by sending letters of communication (known as allegation letters and urgent appeals) to states;
- addressing thematic issues by undertaking studies and convening expert consultations on given topics;
- contributing to human rights standard setting in their area of expertise;
- engaging in advocacy and public awareness-raising, including through the media; and
- providing advice for technical cooperation.
The UN’s Facts and figures with regard to the special procedures provide an annual snapshot of their activities in any given year; activities for 2024 are summarized in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1 – United Nations Special Procedures’ Activities, 2024
Source: Figure prepared by the Library of Parliament using information obtained from the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Facts and figures with regard to the special procedures in 2024.
Canada’s Standing Invitation to the United Nations Special Procedures
Whether they have been assigned a thematic or country mandate, all special procedures mandate holders are mandated by the UN to conduct country visits. The frequency of such visits varies, but most mandate holders undertake no more than two or three visits a year.
A former UN mandate holder underlined the importance of country visits, stating that “being present in a country, and spending time with the government and civil society actors in the field, is one of the most effective ways to engage in a dialogue.”
Canada is among 129 states – 128 UN member states and one non-member observer state – to issue a standing invitation to all UN special procedures. The country’s openness to UN human rights scrutiny is one reason for the frequency of mandate holder visits to the country.
Figure 2 below provides an overview of a typical fact-finding mission to Canada:
Figure 2 – Overview of a Typical United Nations Special Procedure Visit to Canada
Source: Figure prepared by the Library of Parliament using information from past reports of visits to Canada by UN special procedures.
At the end of a country visit, special procedures will often issue a statement outlining their preliminary findings. They will then provide the state in question with a draft report of the country visit for the correction of factual mistakes but not substantive content.
Special Procedure Reports and Interactive Dialogues
Special procedures report to the HRC or the Third Committee of the UN General Assembly – or to both – through the submission of annual thematic reports. Country reports are usually included as appendices to these annual submissions. Special procedures make an oral presentation of their report during designated sessions of the HRC and UN General Assembly, followed by an interactive dialogue with government representatives and other stakeholders. The interactive dialogue is an opportunity to discuss the findings of country visits and other observations.
Canada’s Response to Country Reports
Several Canadian government bodies are responsible for following up on the recommendations Canada receives from international human rights bodies, including the UN special procedures. The primary bodies involved are the Federal, Provincial and Territorial Senior Officials Committee Responsible for Human Rights and the Continuing Committee of Officials on Human Rights, which is supervised by the former entity. In addition, the Forum of Federal, Provincial and Territorial Ministers Responsible for Human Rights meets occasionally to discuss key priorities related to human rights in Canada.
Canadian civil society and policy groups have sometimes criticized these institutional arrangements, citing concerns about their effectiveness and transparency. The Centre of Excellence on the Canadian Federation noted a perceived lack of transparency, stating that
[f]ederal, provincial and territorial governments do not table an official public response to those reports [of the special procedures], nor do they report publicly on the progress of implementing the recommendations.
Following its fourth Universal Periodic Review by the HRC in 2023, the Canadian government accepted two recommendations related to strengthening the recommendations of international bodies.
Additional Resources
Limon, Marc and Ted Piccone. Human Rights Special Procedures: Determinants of Influence – Understanding and strengthening the effectiveness of the UN’s independent human rights experts. Universal Rights Group and Brookings Institution, Policy paper, 2014.
United Nations. “About Special Procedures.” Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council.
By Matthew Pringle, Library of Parliament
Categories: International affairs and defence, Law, justice and rights